Aeroplane Basics

 

Aeroplane Basics

•       Super Charger: Super Charger is basically an engine driven air pump that increases manifold pressure and forces the fuel/air mixture into the cylinders. A Super Charger is typically driven by an engine's crank shaft through a gear train at one speed, two speed or variable speeds.

•       Turbo Charger: Turbo Charger itself is located between the air intake and the fuel metering device.

•       Energy Transformation: An aircraft engine is a form of heat engine that converts the chemical energy of fuel into heat energy. Once converted, the heat energy causes an increase in gas pressure within a cylinder. The increased gas pressure is then converted into mechanical energy when the expanding gases force the piston downward. Since the fuel used to produce heat is burned inside the engine, an aircraft engine is referred to as Internal Combustion engine. When fuel is burned outside an engine to produce mechanical energy, the process is called External Combustion.

•       Operating Principle: Like the piston engine, a gas turbine engine is a form of heat engine that converts the chemical energy of fuel into heat energy. Once converted the heat energy causes an increase in gas pressure that is converted into kinetic energy in the form of a high velocity stream of air. The kinetic energy is then converted into mechanical energy when the expanding gases rotate a series of turbine wheels that drive a compressor and accessories. In the case of Turbo-Prop or Turbo-Shaft engines, the expanding gases may also drive a second power turbine which drives a propeller or gearbox.

•       Design & Construction: All heat engines convert heat energy into mechanical energy by taking in a specific volume of air and heat it through the combustion of the fuel. The heated air expands, creating a force that is converted into mechanical energy to drive a propeller or other device. The most common type of heat engine is the Reciprocating Engine. Reciprocating Engines derive their name from the back-and-forth, or reciprocating movement of their pistons. It is this reciprocating motion that produces the mechanical energy needed to accomplish work.

•       Types of Reciprocating Engines: Classification on the basis of:-                                                                     a) Cylinder Arrangement with respect to the Crankshaft (radial, in-line, v-type, or opposed)

b) The Method of Cooling

     i) Liquid Cooled

     ii) Air Cooled

•       Radial Engines: Radial Engines consists of a row, or rows of cylinder arranged radially about a central crankcase. The 2 basic types of radial engines includes:-

•       The Rotary-Type  radial engine.

•       The Static Type radial engine.

•       In-Line Engines

•       V-Type Engines

•        Opposed-Type Engines

•        Four Stroke cycle

•       Intake Stroke

•       Compression Stroke

•       Power Stroke

•       Exhaust Stroke

•        Valve Timing

•        Firing Order

•        Power Impulses

•        Two Stroke Cycle

•        Horse Power= (Force * Distance)/(33000*Time)

•        Indicated Horse Power=PLANK/33000

Where P=The Indicated Mean Effective Pressure or IMEP inside the cylinder during a Power Stroke.

L= The Length of the Stroke in feet or fractions of a foot.

A= The Area of the Piston Head in sq. inches.

N= The Number of Power Strokes per minutes for one cylinder. On a Four Stroke Engine, this is found by dividing the RPM by two.

K= The Number of Cylinders on the Engine.

    Ques. Compute the Indicated HP for a 6-Cylinder Engine that has a bore of 5 inches and is turning at 2750 RPM with a measured IMEP of 125psi per cylinder.

Ans. P=125 psi; L=0.416 ft.; A= 3.14(2.5)**2;N=2750/2; K=6

IHP=PLANK/33000

IHP=(125*0.416*19.625*1375*6)/33000 =255.125

•        The power required to overcome the friction and energy losses is known as Friction Horsepower.

•        Brake Horsepower=(2*3.14 * Torque * RPM)/33000

Given: Torque= 600 foot-pounds

RPM= 2700

Brake Horsepower=(2*3.14*600*2700)/33000 =308.30

•        Piston Displacement

•        Thermal Efficiency= (Horsepower*33000)/(F*BTU*K)

Horsepower=An Engine's Brake or Indicated Horsepower.

33000=Number of foot-pounds of work per min in One Horsepower.

F= Weight of Fuel burned per minutes.

BTU=Heat Value of the Fuel burned measured in BTU.

K=Constant representing the Number of Foot-Pounds of Work each BTU is capable of doing in one second.

By multiplying the pounds per minutes of fuel an engine burns by 20000, you get the Total Number of BTU, or Total Heat Energy that is produced in a given engine.

1 BTU=778 Foot-Pound of Work

   Ques. Determine the Brake Thermal Efficiency of a Piston Engine that produces 150 Brake Horsepower while burning 8 gallons of aviation gasoline per hour.

Ans. Horsepower=150;F=8*8.345*60 lb.; BTU=(8*8.345*60)/20000=4005.6/20000;K=(778*0.2003)*3600

Brake Thermal Efficiency=(150*33000)/(4005.6*0.2003*561000.24)

=4950000/450102655.04=0.011

22. The Induction System is designed to supply air to the engine so that, when fuel is added, combustion can take place. On reciprocating engines, outside air passes through an air intake and is then routed to a carburetor or other fuel metering device. Once fuel is added, the fuel/air mixture is delivered into an intake manifold where it is ducted to the cylinder for combustion. In a turbine engine Induction system, large quantities of air are ducted through an inlet into a compressor. Once through the compressor, the resulting high pressure air mass is diffused, mixed with fuel and ignited in a combustion chamber to produce thrust. Due to the large quantities of air consumed by a turbine engine, the Induction System plays a very large role in the level of efficiency that the engine is able to attain.

23. In both a reciprocating and turbine engine, the purpose of the exhaust system is to remove the spent gases of combustion and safely route them overboard. For an engine to operate at its max efficiency, these systems must function properly. In addition, because a failure of this system could have disastrous results, such as fires or introducing toxic gases into the cabin, it is imperative that the system be inspected and maintained according to the manufacturer's recommendations.

24. Engine Lubrication: The primary purpose of a lubricant is to reduce friction between moving parts and, to a lesser degree, help in engine cooling. It is also used to seal and cushion moving parts, clean the engine interior and protect against corrosion. Since engines requires a lubricant which can circulate freely, liquid lubricants such oils are the most widely used in aircraft engines.

25. Cooling Systems: Aircraft engines are designed to convert heat energy into mechanical energy. However, in doing this, only about 1/3rd of the heat produced is converted. The remaining 2/3rd of the heat energy is wasted and must be removed from air engine. Therefore, the cooling systems are designed to remove the unused heat energy produced by combustion and allow an engine to operate at its peak efficiency.

26. Propellers: Propellers have been used to convert aircraft engine power into thrust. Although many modern transport category aircraft are powered by Turbojet or Turbofan engines. Most of the aircraft in use today are propelled by one or more Propelled by one or more propellers that are driven by either a turbine or reciprocating engine. Regardless of the engine type, the primary purpose of a Propeller is to convert engine power to thrust.

27. Rotational Velocity= 2*3.14*r *RPM

Eg. To determine the blade velocity at a point 18 inches from the hub that is rotating at 1800 RPM

Use-2*3.14*18*1800=203575

At a point 18 inches from the hub the blade travels 203575 inches per minute.

To convert this to miles per hour

Divide 203575 by 63360, (the number of inches in one mile, and multiply the product by 60, the number of minutes in one hour).

1 mile=63360 inches

Therefore, Velocity=(203575/63360) * 60 =192.7 miles per hour.

Also, the speed of the propeller at station 18 is 192.7 miles per hour.

The speed of the propeller at station 48 is 514 miles per hour.

Cloud-Native Computing

 Cloud-Native Computing - Features

1.Code-Base- A single code base is designed/created for each Micro-service, stored in its own repository to be deployed to multiple environments (QA,Staging,Production).

2.Dependencies- Isolates and packages the dependencies of each Micro-service element.

3.Configuration- Moves out configuration information of the Micro-service element and externalizes through a configuration management tool outside of the code. The same deployment can propagate across environments with the correct configuration applied.

4.Backing Services-Exposes ancillary resources (Data stores,Caches,Message Brokers) via an addressable URL.Doing so decouples the resource from the application,enabling it to be interchangeable.

5.Build,Release,Run-Enforces each release in a strict separation across the Build,Release & Run stages.Tags each release with a unique ID to support the ability to roll back. Modern CI/CD systems help fulfill the principle.

6.Processes-Executes each Micro-service in its own process,isolated from other running services..Externalizes required state to a backing service such as a distributed cache or data store.

7.Port Binding-Self contains each Micro-service with its interface and functionality exposed on its own port.Doing so provides isolation from other Micro-services.

8.Concurrency-Services scale out across a large number of small identical processes (copies) as opposed to scaling-up a single large instance on the most powerful machine available.

9.Disposability-Disposes service instances favouring fast startups to increase scalability opportunities and graceful shutdowns to leave the system in a correct state.Docker containers along with an orchestrator inherently dispose service instances,favouring fast startups to increase scalability opportunities and graceful shutdowns to leave the system in a correct state.

10.Development/Production Parity-Environment across the application lifecycle as similar as possible avoiding costly shortcuts.Adoption of containers contribute to promote the same environment across the application lifecycle as similar as possible,avoiding costly shortcuts.

11.Logging-Treats logs generated by Micro-services as Event-stream.Processes logs generated by Micro-services with an event aggregator and propagate the data to data-mining management tools like Azure Monitor or Splunk and eventually long-term archival.

12.Admin Processes-Runs Administrative/Management tasks as one-off processes.Includes tasks like Data-Cleanup and pulling analytics for a report.Tools execute the Data-cleanup and pulling analytics tasks invoked from the production environment,but separately from the application.

13. API first-make everything a service-Assumes the code will be consumed by a front-end client,gateway or another service.

14.Telemetry-The workstation has deep visibility into the application and its behaviour.The design includes the collection of monitoring,domain-specific and system-health Data.

15.Authentication/Authorization-Implements identity from the start considering RBAC (Role-Based Access Control) features available in public clouds.

Bitcoin

 Q1. What is device Hashrate (TH/S)?

A1. “TH/S” is the unit of BITCOIN mining machine for calculating “how much Bitcoin can be mined with your device”. More TH/S means more mining power.

Q2. How Bitcoin mining works?

A2. By solving a complex mathematical puzzle that is part of the Bitcoin program and including the answer in the block. The puzzle that needs solving is to find a number that, when combined with the data in the block and passed through a Hash function, produces a result that is within a certain range.

Q3. Bitcoin Price?

A3. 1 Bitcoin = 663135.37 Indian Rupees.

Q4. What is a Block on Blockchain?

A4. A Block records some or all of the most recent Bitcoin Transactions that have not yet entered any prior blocks. Thus, a Block is like a page of a ledger or Record Book. Each time a Block is “completed”, it gives way to the next Block in the Blockchain.

Q5. How Mining works?

A5. Miners on the network (sometimes referred to as Nodes, but not quite the same!) select Transactions from the Pools and form them into a Block. A Block is basically a collection of Transactions (at this moment in time, still unconfirmed Transactions), in addition to some extra Metadata.

Q6.Does Bitcoin use encryption?

A6. No, Bitcoin does not use encryption. It is called “Cryptocurrency” because its Digital Signature Algorithm uses the same mathematical Techniques that are used for a type of Encryption based on Elliptical curves. (In particular, Bitcoin uses the ECDSA Algorithm with Elliptic curve SECP256K1.

 

Q7. Are Bitcoin Transactions encrypted?

A7.A Transaction is a transfer of Bitcoin value, that is broadcast to the network and collected into Blocks. Transactions are not Encrypted, so it is possible to browse and view every Transaction ever collected into a Block. Once Transactions are buried under enough confirmations they can be considered irreversible.

Q8. Is Bitcoin an Algorithm?

A8. A significant element of Bitcoin that facilities its operation is the Bitcoin Algorithm for proof of Work Mining, which is known as Secure Hash Algorithm 256 (SHA-256). Proof of work mining is an essential component of the Bitcoin system that enables for the correct processing of Transactions on the Blockchain.

Investment Referral1

 1. The mathematical formula EMI= (P * R * (1+R) ⁿ)/ (1 + R) ^n-1

Where P stands for the loan amount or principle,

R is the interest rate per month [if the interest rate per annum is 11%,

then rate of interest per annum will be 11/ (12 * 100)],

and n is the number of monthly installments.

2. The actual formula used to calculate the PMI assigns weight to each common element and then multiplies them by 1 for improvement, 0.5 for no change, and 0 for deterioration.

A reading above 50 suggests an improvement, while a reading below 50 suggests deterioration.

3. The Statutory Liquidity Ratio is determined by the Central Bank as the percentage of Total Demand and Time Liabilities.

            The Time Liabilities refer to the Liabilities of a Bank which is to be paid to the Customer anytime the demand arises and are the Deposits of the Customers which are to be paid on Demand.

4. Reserve Ratio = Reserve Requirement * Bank Deposits.

Net Demand and Time Liabilities which is nothing but a summation of Savings Accounts, Current Accounts and Fixed Deposits which are held by the Bank.

Also, CRR formula, = (Reserved Maintained with Central Bank / Bank Deposits ) * 100%

Cash Ratio Formula = (Cash and Cash Equivalents) / Current Liabilities

5. Securities Transaction Tax is levied on each Purchase and Sale of Equity Listed on a Domestic and Recognized Stock Market. The Rate of Transaction is determined by the Government.

All Stock Market Transactions that involve Equity or Equity Derivatives like Futures and Options are liable to be taxed under the STT Act.

6. Business Activity Index- Each index is calculated by subtracting the percentage of Respondents Reporting a Decrease from the Percentage Reporting an Increase.

7. Consumer Price Index is calculated by dividing the Price of the Basket of Goods and Services in a Given Year (t) by the Price of the same Basket in a Base Year. This ratio is then multiplied by 100, which results in the CPI. In the base year, CPI always adds upto100.

CPI = (Cost of Basket in Current Period / Cost of Basket in Base Period) * 100

CPI = ($ 70 / $50) * 100 = 140

The CPI  is 40 percent higher in the Current Period then in the Base Period.

CPI is a measure that examines the Weighted Average of Prices of a Basket of Consumer Goods and Services, such as transportation, food and medical care.

It is calculated by taking Price Changes for each item in the pre-determined Basket of Goods and Averaging them.

8. A Current Account Deficit implies a reduction of Net Foreign Assets.

Current Account = Change in Net Foreign Assets.

If an economy is running a Current Account Deficit, it is Absorbing, where

Absorption = Domestic Consumption + Investment + Government Spending,

more than that it is Producing.

9. GDP = Private Consumption + Gross Investment + Government Investment + Government Spending + (Exports – Imports)

Nominal value changes due to shifts in quantity and price.

10. Per Capita Income or Average Income measures the Average Income earned per person in a given area (city, region, country, etc.) in a specified year.

It is calculated by dividing the area’s Total Income by its Total Population.

11. The Industrial Production Index is a monthly economic indicator measuring Real Output in the Manufacturing, Mining, Electric & Gas Industries, relative to a Base Year.

12. To calculate the Compounded Annual Growth Rate of an Investment:

Divide the value of an Investment at the end of the period by its value at the beginning of that period. Raise the result to an exponent of one divided by the number of years. Subtract one from

the subsequent result.

Compounded Annual Growth = (Present / Past) ^1/n – 1

= (310 / 205) ^{1/ 10} – 1

= 0.042223

= 4.22 %

13. The working definition of a Recession is Two Consecutive quarters of negative economic Growth as measured by a country’s GDP, although the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) does not necessarily need to see this occur to call a Recession, and uses more frequently reported monthly data.

14. Repo Rate refers to the Rate at which Commercial Banks borrow money by selling their Securities to the Central Bank of country, i.e (RBI) to maintain Liquidity, in case of shortage of funds or due to some statutory measures. It is one of the main tools of RBI to keep inflation under control.

15. To calculate Inflation, start by subtracting the current price of a good from the historical price of the same good. Then divide that number by the Current Price of the Good. Finally, multiply that number by 100 and write your answer as a percentage.

16. To calculate Growth Rate, start by subtracting the Past value from the Current Value. Then divide that number by the Past value. Finally, multiply your answer by 100 to express it as a percentage.

Eg. If the value of your company was $100 and now it’s $200, first you subtract 100 from 200 and get 100 and then divide the 100 by 100 (Past Value) & then multiply the result by 100.

17. For WPI, a set of 697 commodities and their prices are used for the calculation. The selected commodities are supposed to represent various strata of the economy and are supposed to give a comprehensive WPI value for the economy.

WPI is calculated on a base year and WPI for the base year is assigned to be 100.

To show the calculated, let’s assume the base year to be 2010. The data of whole sale prices of all the 435 commodities in the base year and the time for which WPI is to be calculated is gathered. Let’s calculate WPI for the year 2011 for a particular commodity, say wheat.

Assume that the price of a kilogram of wheat in 2010 = Rs.16.75 and in 2011 = Rs.1895

The WPI of wheat for the year 2011 is ((Price of wheat in 2011 – Price of wheat in 2010) /

(Price of wheat in 2010)) * 100

(i.e)(((18.95 – 16.75) / (16.75)) * 100 = 13.13

Since WPI for the base year is assumed as 100, WPI for 2011 will become 100 + 13.13 = 113.13

In this way individual WPI values for remaining 696 commodities are calculated and then the weighted average of individual WPI figures are found out to arrive at the overall Whole Sale Price Index. Commodities are given weightage depending upon its influence in the economy.

18. Reserve Repo Rate is a mechanism to absorb the Liquidity in the Market, thus restricting the borrowing power of investors. Reverse Repo Rate is when the RBI borrows money from Banks, when there is excess Liquidity in the Market. The Banks benefit out of it by receiving interest for their Holdings with the Central Bank.

During high levels of inflation in the economy, the RBI increases the Reverse Repo. It encourages the Banks to park more funds with the RBI to earn higher returns on excess funds. Banks are left with lesser funds to extend loans and borrowings to consumers.

Investment Referral

1. Bonds

A) Infrastructure Bonds

    It is a type of bond issued by both private corporations and by state-owned enterprises to finance the construction of an infrastructure facility

    These bonds may be nominated both in local and in more stable foreign currencies, such as U.S. dollars or euros.

    The proceeds of these bonds are invested by the company in infrastructure facilities of the country.

    Such bonds carries a fixed rate of interest to be paid at the time of maturity.

    These bonds have become a tool of tax planning. If a person is investing in infrastructure bonds, he will be eligible for deduction upto maximum of Rs.20000. every financial year.

    These are long term investment bonds issued by any NBFC company, like Industrial Financial Corporation of India or IDF.

    These companies are an ombudsman borrowing from the investors and lending to the government.

    These bonds are used to fund government infrastructure projects. Thus an individual is directly helping in nation development.

B) Capital Gain Bonds

    It is also known as section 54EC Bonds. It offers tax-exemption on long-term capital gains from selling or assets.

    They are fixed income instruments issued by permitted public sector units, meaning they are backed by government.

    Tax-Benefit- Investors can defer capital gain tax payments and claim exemption under section 54EC of the Income Tax Act. This exemption applies to individuals, companies, firms, HUFs and LLPs.

    Eligibility-To be eligible, the asset sold, must be a long-term capital asset, such as building or land. 54EC bonds do not offer tax-exemption on short-term capital gains.

    Risk- Because they are backed by public sector enterprises, these bonds are generally rated AAA and have a low default rate.

     Focus- Capital gain bonds primarily fund rural electrification projects supporting rural electric co-operatives, government departments and state electric boards.

2. National Savings Scheme(NSS) are a group of savings schemes in India that are available to citizens through post offices and banks.

    Some of the schemes include:

Here are some features of NSC (National Savings Certificate)

    A popular savings bond that is part of India Posts Postal Savings System. NSCs are a good option for small savings and tax savings instruments.

    Interest- NSCs offer a fixed interest rate that compounds annually and is paid out at maturity.

    Tax-Benefits- NSCs qualify for tax benefits under section 80C of Income Tax Act.

    Lock-In-Period- NSCs have a 5-year Lock-In-Period, so you can not withdraw the money early.

    Opening- You can open an NSC at any Post-Office in India.

    National Savings Scheme (Monthly Income Accounts)

    This scheme has a minimum deposit of Rs.1000. and a maximum deposit of Rs.9 lakhs for a single account and Rs.15 lakhs for a joint account. Interest is paid monthly and the account can be closed early after one year.

3. Corporate Fixed Deposit

    The deposit placed by the investors with companies for a fixed term & carrying a predefined rate of interest is called Corporate Fixed Deposit. These are majorly issued by NBFCs & Housing Finance Companies.

 4.  Examples of Government Securities

    1. Treasury Bills (Short-Term G-Secs)

    2. Dated Securities (Long-Term G-Secs)

    3. Cash Management Bills (CMBs)

    4. State Development Loans

    5. Treasury Inflation-Protected Securities (TIPS)

    6. Zero-Coupon Bonds

    7. Capital Indexed Bonds

    8. Floating Rate Bonds

    9. Savings Bonds

    10. Treasury Notes

    11. Treasury Bonds

5. Arbitrage Funds- is a type of mutual fund that invests in both stocks and bonds, aiming to generate fixed returns through stock price arbitrage. Fund Managers invest in equities when they identify a clear opportunity for returns, in short-term debts and money market instruments when arbitrage opportunities are available.

i) Strategy- Arbitrage funds seek to profit from the difference or spread between a target company stock price and the price offered by the acquiring company in a merger or acquisition.

ii) Risk-Arbitrage funds are considered relatively low risk but payoffs can be unpredictable.

They can be a good option for investors seeking to profit from a volatile market without taking on to much risk.

iii) Taxation- Taxed like equity fund.

iv) Expense Ratios- Investors should be aware of potentially high expense ratios.

6. Market

A) Spot & Derivative Market- 

The main difference between Spot & Derivative Markets is that in spot markets, investors own the assets they buy, while in derivative market, investors buy the right to take possession of the assets at the future date.

In Spot Markets, investors buy & hold the assets and take immediate possession of it.

For eg, in stock exchanges, shares are exchanged for cash at the point of sale.

In Derivative Markets, investors buy contracts based on the value of an underlying asset and do not own the asset itself.

For eg, in Future Trading, investors buy contracts based on the value of a commodity.

 

Here are some differences between Spot & Derivative markets:

i) Risk & Reward: Spot Trading is generally simpler and less risky from derivative trading.

ii) Flexibility: Derivative trading offers more flexibility, allowing traders to profit from both rising and falling markets.

iii) Spot Price: is the current quote for immediate purchase of the commodity.

Prices in derivative markets are based on spot prices.

iv) Hedging: Commodity producers and consumers may buy in the spot market and then hedge in the derivative market.

v) Spot Trading involves directly purchasing and owning cryptocurrencies, providing simplicity and transparency.

Derivative trading uses contracts based on the value of cryptocurrencies, offering flexibility and leverage.

    Ideal for long-term investors, spot trading offers lower risks and direct asset ownership.

B) Cash Market & Futures Market-

The main difference between a Cash Market and Futures Market is when transactions are settled:

Cash Market: Transactions are settled immediately or within a short period of time.

For eg: In India, stock market trades are usually settled within T plus 1 or T plus 0 days.

Futures Market: Transactions are settled on a future date at a predetermined price.

In the Futures Market buyers pay for the right to receive as good at a specified date in the future.

Here are some other differences;

i) Ownership: In a cash market, investors immediately own the securities or commodities they purchase.

In the Futures Market, investors commit to a  future transaction through a contract.

ii) Holding Period: In a Cash Market, investors can hold onto thier securities or commodities for as long as they want.

In the Futures Market, investors can hold onto their contracts for a maximum of 5 months.

iii) The risk factor in the Cash Market may be lower than in the Futures Market.

When deciding which market to invest in, investors should consider, factors like settlement period, risk exposure, liquidity and leverage options.

While the Cash Markets offers immediacy, the Futures Market provides avenues for Hedging and Speculation.

Choosing the right market depends on ones financial goals and risk apetite.